In linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure and the study of meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words, a blend is a word formed from parts of two or more other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes.
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Linguistics
Blends deal with the action of abridging and then combining various lexemes A lexeme ( pronunciation ) is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN. A related concept is the lemma (or citation form), which is a to form a new word. However, the process of defining which words are true blends and which are not is more complicated. The difficulty comes in determining which parts of a new word are "recoverable" (its root can be distinguished).[1]
There are many types of blends, based on how they are formed. Algeo, a linguist, proposed dividing blends into three groups[1] :
- Phonemic Overlap: a syllable or part of a syllable is shared between two words
- Clipping: the shortening of two words and then compounding them
- Phonemic Overlap and Clipping: shortening of two words to a shared syllable and then compounding
However, classification of types of blends is not standard among all linguists.
Formation
Most blends are formed by one of the following methods:
- The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other (see portmanteau A portmanteau (pronounced /pɔrtmænˈtoʊ/ , plural: portmanteaus or portmanteaux) or portmanteau word is used to mean a blend of two (or more) words or morphemes and their meanings into one new word. In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph which represents two or more morphemes). For example, brunch Brunch is a combination of breakfast and lunch. The term is a portmanteau of breakfast and lunch. Often, it is a heavy meal meant to take the place of both breakfast and lunch. While common in the United States and Canada, according to Punch magazine, the term was introduced in Britain around 1896 by Hunter's Weekly, then becoming student slang is a blend of breakfast and lunch.
- simultaneous (5) + broadcast (2) → simulcast Simulcast, shorthand for "simultaneous broadcast", refers to programs or events broadcast across more than one medium, or more than one service on the same medium, at the same time. For example, Absolute Radio is simulcast on both AM and on satellite radio, and the BBC's Prom concerts are often simulcast on both BBC Radio 3 and BBC (3, exception)
- smoke (1) + fog (1) → smog Smog is a type of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Modern smog is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form (1)
- spoon (1) + fork (1) → spork A spork or a foon is a hybrid form of cutlery taking the form of a spoon-like shallow scoop with three or four fork tines. Spork-like utensils, such as the terrapin fork or ice cream fork, have been manufactured since the late 1800s; patents for spork-like designs date back to at least 1874, and the word "spork" was registered as a (1)
- The beginnings of two words are combined. For example, cyborg A cyborg , also known as a cybernetic organism, is a being with both biological and artificial parts. The term was coined in 1960 when Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline used it in an article about the advantages of self-regulating human-machine systems in outer space. D. S. Halacy's Cyborg: Evolution of the Superman in 1965 featured an introduction is a blend of cybernetic Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems. Cybernetics is closely related to control theory and systems theory. Both in its origins and in its evolution in the second-half of the 20th century, cybernetics is equally applicable to physical and social systems and organism In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole. An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, as in humans, many trillions of cells grouped into.
- Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds. For example, the word Californication, from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers Red Hot Chili Peppers is an American funk rock band formed in Los Angeles in 1983. The band's current line-up is Anthony Kiedis , Michael "Flea" Balzary (bass), Chad Smith (drums) and Josh Klinghoffer (guitar). Their musical style has fused traditional funk with elements of other genres including hip hop, punk rock, and psychedelic rock, is a blend of California California's geography ranges from the Pacific coast to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the east, to Mojave desert areas in the southeast and the Redwood–Douglas fir forests of the northwest. The center of the state is dominated by the Central Valley, one of the most productive agricultural areas in the world. California is the most and fornication, and the word motel A motel is a hotel designed for motorists, and usually has a parking area for motor vehicles is a blend of motor and hotel
- Multiple sounds from two component words are blended, while mostly preserving the sounds' order. Poet Lewis Carroll Charles Lutwidge Dodgson , better known by the pseudonym Lewis Carroll (/ˈkærəl/, KA-rəl), was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon and photographer. His most famous writings are Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass, as well as the poems "The Hunting of the Snark" and " was well known for these kinds of blends. An example of this is the word slithy "Jabberwocky" is a poem of nonsense verse written by Lewis Carroll, originally featured as a part of his novel Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There . It is considered by many to be one of the greatest nonsense poems written in the English language. The poem is sometimes used in primary schools to teach students about the, a blend of lithe and slimy. This method is difficult to achieve and is considered a sign of Carroll's verbal wit As in the wit of Parker's set, the Algonquin Round Table, witty remarks may be intentionally cruel , and perhaps more ingenious than funny.[citation needed] A recent example is stagflation In economics, the term stagflation refers to the situation when both the inflation rate and the unemployment rate are high. It is a difficult economic condition for a country, as both inflation and economic stagnation occur simultaneously and no macroeconomic policy can address both of these problems at the same time, a blend of stagnation and inflation.
When two words are combined in their entirety, the result is considered a compound word In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding or composition is the word-formation that creates compound lexemes (the other word-formation process being derivation). Compounding or Word-compounding refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words. In rather than a blend. For example, bagpipe Bagpipes are a class of musical instrument, aerophones, using enclosed reeds fed from a constant reservoir of air in the form of a bag. Though the Scottish Great Highland Bagpipe and Irish uilleann pipes have the greatest international visibility, bagpipes of many different types come from different regions throughout Europe, Northern Africa, the is a compound, not a blend, of bag and pipe.
Blending of two roots
Blending can also apply to roots In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil. This is not always the case, however, since a root can also be aerial or aerating (growing up above the ground or especially above water). Furthermore, a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either (see rhizome). So, it is rather than words, for instance in Israeli Hebrew 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF . "Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF דחפור dakhpór ‘bulldozer’ hybridizes (Mishnaic Hebrew The term Mishnaic Hebrew refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects can be further sub-divided into Mishnaic Hebrew , which was a spoken language, and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a literary language>>)Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF דחפ √dħp ‘push’ and (Biblical Hebrew Biblical Hebrew, also called Classical Hebrew, is the archaic form of the Hebrew language in which the Hebrew Bible and various Israelite inscriptions were written>>)Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF חפר √ħpr ‘dig’[...] Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF שלטוט shiltút ‘zapping, surfing the channels, flipping through the channels’ derives from (i) (Hebrew Extinct as a regularly spoken language by the 4th century CE, but survived as a liturgical and literary language; revived in the 1880s>)Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF שלט shalát ‘remote control’, an ellipsis – like English remote (but using the noun instead) – of the (widely known) compound שלט רחוק shalát rakhók – cf. the Academy of the Hebrew Language The Academy of the Hebrew Language was established by the Israeli Government in 1953 as the "supreme institution for scholarship on the Hebrew language". It replaced the Hebrew Language Committee (Vaʻad ha-lashon ha-ʻIvrit), which was established in 1890. The Academy is responsible for creating new Hebrew words to keep up with today's’s שלט רחק shalát rákhak; and (ii) (Hebrew Extinct as a regularly spoken language by the 4th century CE, but survived as a liturgical and literary language; revived in the 1880s>)Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF שטוט shitút ‘wandering, vagrancy’. Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF שלטוט shiltút was introduced by the Academy of the Hebrew Language The Academy of the Hebrew Language was established by the Israeli Government in 1953 as the "supreme institution for scholarship on the Hebrew language". It replaced the Hebrew Language Committee (Vaʻad ha-lashon ha-ʻIvrit), which was established in 1890. The Academy is responsible for creating new Hebrew words to keep up with today's in [...] 1996. Synchronically, it might appear to result from reduplication of the final consonant of shalát ‘remote control’. Another example of blending which has also been explained as mere reduplication is Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF גחלילית gakhlilít ‘fire-fly, glow-fly, Lampyris’. This coinage by Hayyim Nahman Bialik Hayim Nahman Bialik , also Chaim or Haim, was a Jewish poet who wrote in Hebrew. Bialik was one of the pioneers of modern Hebrew poets and came to be recognized as Israel's national poet blends (Hebrew Extinct as a regularly spoken language by the 4th century CE, but survived as a liturgical and literary language; revived in the 1880s>)Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF גחלת gakhélet ‘burning coal’ with (Hebrew Extinct as a regularly spoken language by the 4th century CE, but survived as a liturgical and literary language; revived in the 1880s>)Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF לילה láyla ‘night’. Compare this with the unblended חכלילית khakhlilít ‘(black) redstart, Phœnicurus’ (<<Biblical Hebrew Biblical Hebrew, also called Classical Hebrew, is the archaic form of the Hebrew language in which the Hebrew Bible and various Israelite inscriptions were written חכליל ‘dull red, reddish’). Synchronically speaking though, most native Israeli-speakers feel that gakhlilít includes a reduplication of the third radical of גחל √għl. This is incidentally how Ernest Klein[2] explains gakhlilít. Since he is attempting to provide etymology, his description might be misleading if one agrees that Hayyim Nahman Bialik Hayim Nahman Bialik , also Chaim or Haim, was a Jewish poet who wrote in Hebrew. Bialik was one of the pioneers of modern Hebrew poets and came to be recognized as Israel's national poet had blending in mind."[3]
"There are two possible etymological analyses for Israeli Hebrew 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF כספר kaspár ‘bank clerk, teller’. The first is that it consists of (Hebrew Extinct as a regularly spoken language by the 4th century CE, but survived as a liturgical and literary language; revived in the 1880s>)Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF כסף késef ‘money’ and the (International In linguistics, an internationalism or international word is a loanword that occurs in several languages with the same or at least similar meaning and etymology. These words exist in "several different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the ultimate source" . Pronunciation and orthography are similar so/Hebrew Extinct as a regularly spoken language by the 4th century CE, but survived as a liturgical and literary language; revived in the 1880s>)Israeli 1United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. Table 1a.PDF agentive An agentive ending in the English language is the use of the suffix -er, -or, -ist, or -ian at the end of a verb in order to create a noun meaning "someone or something that does the action the verb describes." Examples include provider and builder (from build) suffix In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns or adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Particularly in the study of Semitic languages, a suffix is called an afformative, as they can alter the form of the ר- -ár. The second is that it is a quasi-portmanteau word which blends כסף késef ‘money’ and (Hebrew>)Israeli ספר √spr ‘count’. Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár started as a brand name but soon entered the common language. Even if the second analysis is the correct one, the final syllable ר- -ár apparently facilitated nativization since it was regarded as the Hebrew suffix ר- -år (probably of Persian pedigree), which usually refers to craftsmen and professionals, for instance as in Mendele Mocher Sforim’s coinage סמרטוטר smartutár ‘rag-dealer’."[4]
Lexical selection
Blending may occur with an error in lexical selection, the process by which a speaker uses his semantic knowledge to choose words. Lewis Carroll's explanation, which gave rise to the use of 'portmanteau' for such combinations, was:
Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words "fuming" and "furious." Make up your mind that you will say both words ... you will say "frumious."[5]
The errors are based on similarity of meanings, rather than phonological similarities, and the morphemes or phonemes stay in the same position within the syllable[6].
Use
Some languages, like Japanese, encourage the shortening and merging of borrowed foreign words (as in gairaigo), because they are long or difficult to pronounce in the target language. For example, karaoke, a combination of the Japanese word kara (meaning empty) and the clipped form oke of the English loanword "orchestra" (J. ōkesutora オーケストラ), is a Japanese blend that has entered the English language. (From the article gairaigo.)
Many corporate brand names, trademarks, and initiatives, as well as names of corporations and organizations themselves, are blends. For example, Wiktionary, one of Wikipedia's sister projects, is a blend of wiki and dictionary. Also, Nabisco is a blend of the initial syllables of National Biscuit Company.
See also
| Look up blend in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Amalgamation (names)
- Clipping (morphology)
- Compound (linguistics)
- Conceptual blending
- Contraction (grammar)
- Phono-semantic matching
- Portmanteau word
- Syllabic abbreviation
References
- ^ a b Blends
- ^ See p. 97 in Klein, Ernest (1987), A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language, Jerusalem: Carta.
- ^ See p. 66 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-1723-X.
- ^ See p. 67 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-1723-X.
- ^ Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland.
- ^ Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2007) An Introduction to Language, Eighth Edition. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 1-4130-1773-8
Categories: Linguistics | Word coinage
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